Performance measurement (PM) by means of local performance indicators (PIs) is developing into performance management at a company-wide scale. But how should PIs at various levels in the organization be incorporated into one system that can help managers, working at levels that range from operational to strategic? How do we convince potential users and obtain their support when starting to develop such a system? How can we aggregate PIs? How do we present results? This paper addresses these and related questions.
It is based on a case study carried out at the European Operations department of Nike, a company producing and selling sportswear worldwide. The study resulted in a prototype system that basically is a balanced scorecard tailored to the needs of the company. The empirical findings differ in some ways from the literature on developing performance measurement systems (PMSs) in Operations.
Discussing these differences provides new theoretical and practical insights. They relate to the role of parallel initiatives for PM, the role of standardized metrics, the continuous improvement of PMSs, and the normalization and aggregation of measures. Our findings suggest that developing PMSs should to a large extent be understood as a co-ordination effort rather than a design effort. The lessons learned cannot have universal validity, but may be helpful in similar kinds of initiatives. Previous article in issue.
Next article in issue.
The Master of ( MBA or M.B.A.) degree originated in the United States in the early 20th century when the country industrialized and companies sought. The core courses in an MBA program cover various areas of business such as, and in a manner most relevant to management and strategy. Most programs also include and concentrations for further study in a particular area, for example accounting, finance, and marketing. MBA programs in the United States typically require completing about sixty, nearly twice the number of credits typically required for degrees that cover some of the same material such as the, and.
The MBA is a and a. Bodies specifically for MBA programs ensure consistency and quality of education. Business schools in many countries offer programs tailored to full-time, part-time, (abridged coursework typically occurring on nights or weekends) and students, many with specialized concentrations. Contents. History The first school of business in the was of the established in 1881 through a donation from.
In 1900, the was founded at conferring the first in business, specifically, a Master of Science in Commerce, the predecessor to the MBA. The established the first MBA program in 1908, with 15 faculty members, 33 regular students and 47 special students. Its first-year curriculum was based on scientific management. The number of MBA students at Harvard increased quickly, from 80 in 1908, over 300 in 1920, and 1,070 in 1930. At this time, only American universities offered MBAs. Other countries preferred that people learn business on the job.
Other milestones include:. 1930: First management and leadership education program for executives and mid-career experienced managers (the Program at the ). 1943: First Executive MBA (EMBA) program for working professionals at the.
Chicago was also the first business school to establish permanent campuses on three continents in Chicago (USA), Barcelona (Europe), and Singapore (Asia). Most business schools today offer a global component to their executive MBA.
Since the program was established, the school has moved its campuses and is now based in Chicago, London, and Hong Kong. 1946: First MBA focused on global management.
1950: First MBA outside of the United States, in Canada ( at ), followed by the in South Africa in 1951. 1955: First MBA offered at an Asian school at the at the in Pakistan, in collaboration with the of the. 1957: First MBA offered at a European school. 1963: First MBA offered in Korea by Korea University Business School (KUBS). 1986: First MBA program requiring every student to have a laptop computer in the classroom at the Roy E. Crummer Graduate School of Business at (Florida). Beginning with the 1992–1993 academic year, required all incoming students to purchase a laptop computer with standard software, becoming the first business school to do so.
1994: First online executive MBA program at (Canada). The MBA degree has been adopted by universities worldwide in both developed and developing countries. Accreditation United States or MBA program accreditation by external agencies provides students and employers with an independent view of the school or program's quality, as well as whether the curriculum meets specific quality standards. The three major accrediting bodies in the United States are:. (AACSB),. (ACBSP), and.
(IACBE). All of these groups also accredit schools outside the US.
The and the are themselves recognized in the United States by the (CHEA). MBA programs with specializations for students pursuing careers in healthcare management also eligible for accreditation by the (CAHME). US MBA programs may also be accredited at the institutional level. Bodies that accredit institutions as a whole include:.
(MSA),. (NEASC),. (HLC),. (NWCCU),. (SACS), and. (WASC).
Other countries Accreditation agencies outside the United States include the (AMBA), a UK-based organization that accredits MBA, DBA and MBM programs worldwide, government accreditation bodies such as the (AICTE), which accredits MBA and Postgraduate Diploma in Management (PGDM) programs across India. Some of the leading bodies in India that certify MBA institutions and their programs are the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) and the University Grants Commission (UGC).
A distance MBA program needs to be accredited by the Distance Education Council (DEC) in India. The Council on Higher Education (CHE) in South Africa, the operates the (EQUIS) for mostly European, Australian, New Zealand and Asian schools, the (FIBAA), and (CEEMAN) in Europe. Main article: International MBA programs are acquiring brand value in Asia. For example, while a foreign MBA is still preferred in the Philippines, many students are now studying at one of many 'Global MBA' English language programs being offered.
English-only MBA programs are also offered in Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand. For international students who want a different experience, many Asian programs offer scholarships and discounted tuition to encourage an international environment in the classroom.
Rankings have been published for Asia Pacific schools by the magazine which is a regional business magazine with distribution worldwide. The importance of MBA education in China has risen, too. Bangladesh Bangladesh was one of the first countries in Asia to offer MBA degree. There are now more than 50 business schools in Bangladesh offering the MBA, predominantly targeting graduates without any work experience.
Operations And Maintenance Benchmarks Research Report #32 Pdf
Most MBAs are two years full-time. There is little use of GMAT. The Business Schools conduct their own admission tests instead.
Classes are taught in English. India There are many business schools and colleges in India offering two-year MBA or PGDM programs accredited by AICTE. The are among the world's most selective schools according to Bloomberg magazine. They offer a post graduate degree in management. There are 20 IIMs in total, 12 of which were established after the year 2010. Malaysia Malaysia is one of the pioneer country in South East Asia to offer MBA programs. Both public and private universities offers MBA degrees.
Most MBAs are in full-time mode and part-time mode. All MBA degrees are conducted in English. Singapore Singapore is South East Asia's leading financial hub. Its competitive educational system starts from primary schools to universities and eventually post-graduate studies such as EMBA programs.
Japan In Japan 2 business schools offer the accredited MBA degree (AACSB, AMBA or EQUIS). The concept of an MBA is still not considered mainstream as traditional companies still perceive that knowledge and learning with respect to business and management can only be effectively gained through experience and not within a classroom. In fact, some companies have been known to place recent MBA recipients in unrelated fields, or try to re-acclimate their Japanese employees who have spent years overseas earning the degree. As a consequence, academic institutions in Japan are attempting to reinvent the perception of the MBA degree, by taking into account the local corporate culture. Pakistan Pakistan first offered an MBA program outside the United States in 1955 in collaboration with the University of Pennsylvania. Now in Pakistan, there are 187 Universities/Institutes which are recognized by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan, offering MBA programs to students and professionals. Australia.
Main article: In Australia, 42 Australian business schools offer the MBA degree (16 are AACSB, AMBA or EQUIS accredited ). Universities differentiate themselves by gaining international accreditation and focusing on national and international rankings.
Most MBAs are one to two years full-time. There is little use of GMAT, and instead each educational institution specifies its own requirements, which normally entails several years of management-level work experience as well as proven academic skills. Carries out ratings for Australian MBAs and annually publishes. The Financial Review Boss carries out biennial rankings of Australian MBAs. New Zealand In New Zealand, most universities offer MBA classes, typically through part-time arrangement or evening classes. Only two universities offer full-time programs to international students - University of Otago (Otago MBA) and Auckland University of Technology (AUT).
The Otago MBA is the longer established of the two, offering a 240 points program while AUT MBA is a 180-point program. South Korea Korean universities offer full-time and part-time MBA programs that usually consist of a two-year curriculum.
The first MBA program was offered in 1963 by Korea University Business School (KUBS). In 2007, the Korean Government established 'BK21,' a project that supports Korean universities in order to develop their competitiveness in the global MBA market. Korea University Business School topped the evaluation of BK21 professional business graduate schools for six consecutive years. In the meantime, only two universities in Korea ranked in the '2015 Global Top 100 Executive MBA (EMBA) Rankings' conducted by UK Financial Times (Korea University Business School and Yonsei University ranked 27th and 45th worldwide, respectively). Program rankings. See also:, and Since 1967, publications have ranked MBA programs using various methods.
The (1967–1997) did not disclose criteria or ranking methods, and these reports were criticized for reporting statistically impossible data, such as no ties among schools, narrow gaps in scores with no variation in gap widths, and ranks of nonexistent departments. In 1977 The Carter Report ranked MBA programs based on the number of academic articles published by faculty, the Ladd & Lipset Survey ranked business schools based on faculty surveys, and MBA Magazine ranked schools based on votes cast by business school deans. Today, publications by the, and the make their own rankings of MBA programs. Schools' ranks can vary across publications, as the methodologies for rankings differ among publications:. The publishes the Beyond Grey Pinstripes rankings which are based on the integration of social and environmental stewardship into university curriculum and faculty research. Rankings from a small sample of well-known schools are calculated on the amount of coursework made available to students (20%), amount of student exposure to relevant material (25%), amount of coursework focused on stewardship by for-profit corporations (30%), and relevant faculty research (25%).
The 2011 survey and ranking include data from 150 universities. Business Week 's rankings are based on student surveys, a survey of corporate recruiters, and an intellectual capital rating.
The, published in The Economist, surveys both business schools (80%) and students and recent graduates (20%). Ranking criteria include GMAT scores, employment and salary statistics, class options, and student body demographics. Financial Times uses survey responses from alumni who graduated three years prior to the ranking and information from business schools. Salary and employment statistics are weighted heavily. Forbes considers only the return of investment five years after graduation.
MBA alumni are asked about their salary, the tuition fees of their MBA program and other direct costs as well as opportunity costs involved. Based on this data, a final '5-year gain' is calculated and determines the MBA ranking position. QS Global 200 Business Schools Report compiles regional rankings of business schools around the world.
Ranks are calculated using a two-year moving average of points assigned by employers who hire MBA graduates. News & World Report incorporates responses from deans, program directors, and senior faculty about the academic quality of their programs as well as the opinions of hiring professionals. The ranking is calculated through a weighted formula of quality assessment (40%), placement success (35%), and student selectivity (25%). UT-Dallas Top 100 Business School Research Rankings ranks business schools on the research faculty publish, similar to The Carter Report of the past. The Wall Street Journal, which stopped ranking full-time MBA programs in 2007, based its rankings on skill and behavioral development that may predict career success, such as social skills, teamwork orientation, ethics, and analytic and problem-solving abilities. The ranking of MBA programs has been discussed in articles and on academic websites. Critics of ranking methodologies maintain that any published rankings should be viewed with caution for the following reasons:.
Rankings exhibit intentional selection bias as they limit the surveyed population to a small number of MBA programs and ignore the majority of schools, many with excellent offerings. Ranking methods may be subject to personal biases and statistically flawed methodologies (especially methods relying on subjective interviews of hiring managers, students, or faculty). Rankings use no objective measures of program quality. The same list of schools appears in each ranking with some variation in ranks, so a school ranked as number 1 in one list may be number 17 in another list. Rankings tend to concentrate on representing MBA schools themselves, but some schools offer MBA programs of different qualities and yet the ranking will only rely upon information from the full-time program (e.g., a school may use highly reputable faculty to teach a daytime program, but use adjunct faculty in its evening program or have drastically lower admissions criteria for its evening program than for its daytime program). A high rank in a national publication tends to become a. Some leading business schools including Harvard, INSEAD, Wharton and provide limited cooperation with certain ranking publications due to their perception that rankings are misused.
One study found that ranking MBA programs by a combination of graduates' starting salaries and average student GMAT score can approximately duplicate the top 20 list of the national publications, and concluded that a truly objective ranking would use objective measures of program quality and be individualized to the needs of each prospective student. National publications have recognized the value of rankings against different criteria, and now offer lists ranked different ways: by salary, GMAT score of students, selectivity, and so forth. While useful, these rankings have yet to meet the critique that rankings are not tailored to individual needs, that they use an incomplete population of schools, may fail to distinguish between the different MBA program types offered by each school, or rely on subjective interviews. Criticism The media raised questions about the value and content of business school programs after the. In general, graduates had reportedly tended to go into finance after receiving their degrees. As financial professionals are widely seen as responsible for the global economic meltdown, anecdotal evidence suggests new graduates are choosing different career paths. Deans at top business schools have acknowledged that media and public perception of the MBA degree shifted as a result of the financial crisis.
Articles have been written about public perceptions of the crisis, ranging from schools' acknowledgment of issues with the training students receive to criticisms of the MBA's role in society. The MBA title has acquired a mixed reputation in that the MBA curriculum tends to educate students in the ' is good' direction based on various simplistic assumptions about human behaviour. See also. Related graduate business degrees see:. 'Andreas Kaplan: A school is 'a building that has four wallswith tomorrow inside': Toward the reinvention of the business school'. Business Horizons.
6 December 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2014. A master's degree comes in only two options: a professional, or 'terminal' master's degree, or an academic master's degree.A terminal degree is a means to an end; it will prepare you for entrance into a specific type or group of jobs. A terminal degree implies there is no need for any further education, thus the word 'terminal.' Degrees from professional master's programs are usually marked by specific initials that denote their area of specialty, such as a Master of Business Administration (M.B.A) or Master of Library Science (M.L.S.) degree.Conversely, an academic degree centers on research and scholarly studies in a specific area.
These degrees are more likely to lead to continued education at the doctoral level where you can specialize in a very specific area of that field. Maier, Christopher (2005). Complete Book of Graduate Programs in the Arts and Sciences.
New York: Random House. 'PhD' and 'terminal degree' are not synonymous. A number of master's degrees lead students directly to, well, the end of the formal educational line. One such example is the MFA, which is earned by practicing artists in fields such as creative writing, visual arts, and theater.
In the world of business administration degrees, an MBA is terminal. Although a little research might turn up a handful of PhD options in the creative arts or business, these are different monsters; they don't take away from the fact the person with the MFA or the MBA has a terminal degree. Retrieved 2013-07-26. Donald Stabile (1 January 2007).
Edward Elgar Publishing. Kaplan, Andreas (2014). 'European management and European business schools: Insights from the history of business schools'. European Management Journal. 32: 529–534.
Retrieved 2013-07-26. ^ Leach, William (1993).
New York: Pantheon Books. Retrieved on 2013-07-26. Retrieved on 2018-02-01.
page showing awarding of first MBA in 1950, one year ahead of the University of Pretoria's claim. 23 September 2006 at the. Page claiming to have awarded the first MBA outside of America. Retrieved 2016-06-20. McIntyre, John R.
And Ilan Alon, eds. (2005), Business and Management Education in Transitioning and Developing Countries: A Handbook, Armonk, NY: ME Sharpe.
Brink, Kyle E.; Smith, Clair (2012). 'A Comparison of AACSB, ACBSP, and IACBE Accredited U.S.
Business Programs: An Institutional Resource Perspective'. Business Education & Accreditation. 4 (2): 1–15. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
Koenig, Ann; Lofstad, Rolf (18 September 2004). EAIE Conference. Archived from (PDF) on 2 November 2006.
All Business Schools (5 July 2018). de l'Etraz, Paris (1 November 2009).
BizEd Magazine. Archived from (PDF) on 24 September 2014. Karen Hebert-Maccaro (8 September 2011). Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
Kitroeff, Natalie (20 October 2014). Bloomberg Business.
Retrieved 19 June 2013. MBAapplicant.com (31 July 2009). MBA Applicant.com. SMU Cox (19 January 2010). SMU Cox School of Business. Educational Testing Service. Retrieved 20 July 2014., rutgers.edu.sg., insead.edu.
See for example:;;;. Yeaple, Ronald. Kangis, Peter; Carman, Robert. The International Journal of Management Education. ^, degree.net. (PDF). Educational Testing Service.
Archived from (PDF) on 22 January 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
Peregrine Academic Services. Retrieved 22 November 2016. Beta Gamma Sigma. Beta Gamma Sigma. Retrieved April 10, 2018.
Delta Mu Delta. Delta Mu Delta. Retrieved April 10, 2018. Financial Management Association. Financial Management Association. Retrieved April 10, 2018. Retrieved April 10, 2018.
Zlomek, Erin (20 August 2014). Archived from on 24 August 2014. Retrieved 20 August 2014. Salisbury University. Archived from on 21 August 2014. Retrieved 20 August 2014.
University of Maryland University College. Retrieved 20 August 2014. 'Kaplan A.: European Management and European Business Schools: Insights from the History of Business Schools, European Management Journal, 2014'. European Management Journal. 32: 529–534.
Retrieved on 2013-07-26. Archived from on 24 March 2015. Retrieved on 2013-07-26. Retrieved 15 May 2014. Alon, Ilan and John R. McIntyre, eds. (2005), Business and Management Education in China: Transition, Pedagogy and Training, Singapore: World Scientific.
Erin Zlomek (18 April 2013). Bloomberg Business.
Retrieved 4 May 2015. Archived from on 5 September 2014. Retrieved 22 September 2014. The New York Times (24 November 2010).
The New York Times. Retrieved 26 April 2015. Uther, Beverley; Suchy, Martin (12 September 2013). Retrieved 26 April 2015. ^ Schatz, Martin; Crummer, Roy E. Management Research News.
16 (7): 15–18. Archived from on 12 April 2013.
Retrieved 22 July 2011. Selingo, Jeffrey.
Chronicle of Higher Education (7 November 1997). The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist (June 2002). Beyond Grey Pinstripes. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Samuelson, Judy (Summer 2011).
The Aspen Idea: 66–67. Archived from (PDF) on 12 July 2011. Retrieved 18 July 2011. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Retrieved 18 December 2007. The Economist Intelligence Unit Limited. Retrieved 19 December 2007.
Milton, Ursula (29 January 2007). The Financial Times Ltd. Archived from on 17 December 2007. Retrieved 25 December 2007. 3 August 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2011. News & World Report.
Retrieved 18 December 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2014. The Wall Street Journal. 16 September 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2011. Archived from on 26 October 2007.
Retrieved 6 September 2005. ^ Schatz, Martin; Crummer, Roy E.
Management Research News. 16 (7): 15–18. Archived from on 12 April 2013. Hemel, Daniel J (12 April 2004). Retrieved 29 January 2008.
^ Holland, Kelley (14 March 2009). Th York Times.
Stossel, John (19 June 2009). 'The New Normal'. ^ Bradshaw, Della (18 June 2009). Financial Times. Stewart, Matthew (25 March 2009). Parker, Martin (2018-04-27).
The Guardian. Retrieved 2018-05-24.
There are 13,000 business schools on Earth. That’s 13,000 too many. And I should know – I’ve taught in them for 20 years External links Wikiversity has learning resources about.